The Last British Wolves
Summary
A reading of historical documents indicates that wolves were extant in Britain around 1600 but extinct by 1680. Stories about wolves surviving later, including the much quoted story of the last wolf in Britain, killed by MacQueen in 1743, are in reality the last of the British oral traditions of people killing wolves.
When Did The Last British Wolves Perish?
Wolves (Canis lupus) were exterminated from Britain after centuries of persecution (Harting 1880:120-85). The last wolves survived in the Scottish Highlands and the legend is that the last individual was killed there in 1743 by a character called MacQueen.
Today, an increasing number of influential people are calling for a wolf reintroduction to Britain so that wolves can once again live in the Scottish Highlands (eg BBC News 1999; New Scientist 2001; The Scotsman 2002). Therefore it is important to put on firm ground when wolves died out. When exactly were the last British wolves extirpated? Can we distinguish fact from legend?
Documentary Evidence
There are many dubious references but few original sources about the end of wolves in Britain. Reading back through historical documents, crucial primary sources for the last extant wolves are the Rent Book of Cupar-Angus Abbey and the Black Book of Taymouth. There is also Holinshed (1577) and Camden (1610, 1695), who are among the earliest authors to publish printed works on nature, geography and history in Britain. Camden also provides a clue as to when wolves went extinct, as does Sibbald (1684), another prominent early writer of the period.
Evidence For Extant Wolves
The monks of Cupar-Angus Abbey owned land and compiled a document, know today as the Rent Book of Cupar-Angus Abbey (Rogers 1880), showing how they administered their estates and conducted their affairs. In a section of the book for the mid 16th century they recorded lease agreements with their tenants. Some leases (eg pages 251, 262) stipulate that tenants are required to:
"... sustene and nwrice ane leche of hundis for tod and wolf.."
That is tenants are required to '...sustain and nourish a leash of hounds for hunting fox (tod) and wolf...' So wolves presumably existed at this time.
The Black Book of Taymouth is a history of the Campbells of Glenorchy, who became earls and marquises of Breadalbane, and were one of Scotland's biggest landowning families. The book was written mainly by William Bowie in the first half of the 17th century and is a sources for historians on Highland life in this period. It was published in Edinburgh in 1855.
The Black Book indicates that wolves were extant in the early 17th century. It mentions a decree stating that every year each tenant had to make four croscattis of irone, possibly a kind of spear, for killing wolves, under penalty of a fine if they did not (page 356):
"15. Item it is statute and ordanit that evirie tenant within the saidis boundis respective mak four croscattis of irone for slaying of the wolff yeirly in tyme cuming, under the paine of four pundis money toties quoties incais of failyie."
The Black Book also records (page 374) a court ruling in the year 1622:
"Johnne Dow M'Instalker in Clochran persewis Patrik M'Nab of Swy for taking away of his awin hird, and tyning of thrie ky quhilkis wer slane by the wolf. The assyis decernis and ordanis the said Patrik M'Nab to pey twa merkis money, and ane pair of schone in contentatioun of the clame."
That is, Johnne Dow MacInstalker from Clochran prosecuted Patrick MacNab of Swy for taking MacInstalker's herd, and tying up three cattle who were then slain by the wolf. The court ordered that Patrick MacNab pay compensation for the claim.
Holinshed's Chronicles of England, Scotlande and Irelande, first published in 1577, is a description of Britain from early times through to the sixteenth century. It is actually written by several contributors who used diverse sources of information.
According to Holinshed (1577) wolves were still common in Scotland in the 16th century (chapter 8, page 10):
"Having made this speciall description of the Realme of Scotland, now will I touche such thinges as concerne the same in generall. First of all therefore in the fieldes and wilde places of the countrey there is great plenty of Hares, red Dere, Fallow dere, Roes, wilde Horses, Wolves and Foxes."
"The Wolves are most fierce and noysome unto the heardes and flockes in all partes of Scotland, saving in one parcell of Angus, called Glenmors dale, where these beastes do no maner of hurt unto the domiesticall cattell, but pray onely upon the wilde."
Camden's Britannia was first published in Latin in 1588, is a comprehensive work on Britain, and several editions were published. Camden says wolves were still common in Scotland. In an edition translated into English by Philemon Holland and published in 1610, Camden says (Scotland, p54) regarding Strath-Navern, Scotland:
"The country it selfe is for the soile nothing firtile, and by reason of the sharpe and cold aire lesse inhabited: and thereupon fore haunted and annoied by most cruell wolves. Which in such violent rage not only set upon cattiale to the exceeding great dammage of the inhabitants, but also assaile men with great danger, and not in this tract onely, but in many other parts likewise of Scotland, in so much, as by vertue of an act of Parliament, the Sheriffes and inhabitants in every Country are commanded to goe forth thrice a yeere a hunting, for to destroy the wolves and their whelpes."
Summary
These documents indicate that wolves were extant in Scotland in the 17th century. The question now is - when did the wolves go extinct?
Evidence For Extinction
Camden tells us approximately when wolves went extinct in Scotland. In the 1695 edition of Britannia, this time translated by Edmund Gibson, is mention of a hospital or refuge at Flixton, a village in Yorkshire, where travellers at night could seek shelter from wolves and other wild beasts. Camden says (page 724):
"More inward stands Flixton, where a Hospital was built in the time of Athelstan, for defending travellers (as it is word for word in the Publik Records) from Wolves, that they should not be devour'd by them. This shews us, that in those times Wolves infested this tract, which now are to be met with in no part of England, not so much as in [ie to] the frontiers of Scotland; altho' they are very numerous in that Kingdom."
However, a footnote says that:
"There is no such thing. One might as well say (as some do) that the Caledonian woods are still plentifully stockt with Wild-bears. Both these kinds are long since wholly destroy'd in that Kingdom. See Sir Robert Sibbaldus, Nuntius Scoto-Brit. part.2.p.9."
Camden died in 1623. This footnote was added by the translator, Edmund Gibson. Gibson is telling us that since Camden wrote the earlier edition there is no such thing anymore as wolves, no more than there are bears, since both species have been destroyed in Scotland. Gibson's source for this opinion is his reference to Sir Robert Sibbaldus or Robert Sibbald, who we now turn to.
Robert Sibbald was a distinguished figure in Scotland during the enlightenment and was commissioned to produce a natural history of Scotland. He published it in Latin in 1684 as Scotia Illustrata. In a passage on wolves Sibbald (1684, part 2:9) writes:
"Lupi olim frequentes erant, quidam etiam de Caledoniis Ursis loquuntur: Sed horum genus deletum & ex Insula exterminatum est."
Which says that wolves were frequent at that time in Scotland but the species is now exterminated.
Conclusion
Wolves were extant up to and around 1600, according to the Rent Book, the Black Book, Holinshed and Camden, and were extinct by 1680, according to Sibbald. Sibbald was presumably speaking from common knowledge as he does not state any source for his information. There are no convincing references to wolves in the literature after Sibbald. Therefore the 1680's mark the time when wolves went extinct in Britain.
Could Wolves Have Survived Longer?
Harting (1880:170) claims that evidence for wolves dying out at the end of the 17th century is wrong:
"...for not only were Wolves slain in Scotland subsequently to 1680, but numerous traditions concerning these animals survived in the country to at least as recent a date as 1848."
What are these "numerous traditions" of wolves surviving into the 18th century? Harting's most substantial evidence comes from three authors: Scrope (1838), Lauder (1830) and Stuart (in Sobieski & Stuart 1848). These authors wrote about geography, hunting, natural history and traditions in the Scottish Highlands. Between them they tell six stories about wolves quoted verbatim by Harting as evidence. How reliable are these authors' stories about the demise of the last British wolves?
Scrope dates his first of two stories (p109) to the time of Robert III, whose reign ended in 1406. This story is therefore not relevant as it happened well before 1680. In his second wolf story (p370-1) Scrope mentions:
"Some traditionary notices [ie traditional stories] there are of the destruction of the last wolves seen in Sutherland...as late as between the years of 1690 and 1700."
Assuming this brief statement is true it would not put the date of the last wolves much beyond the 1680's. Scrope then tells the story of "the last wolves in Sutherland", but gives no clue of a date for it. Thus, the information from Scrope does not indicate that wolves survived into the 18th century.
Lauder tells the story about a man called MacQueen killing a wolf. Lauder does not give a date for the action but says (p44) that MacQueen:
"...was alive within half a century, it is said that in his youth he killed the last wolf that infested this district [ie Sutherland]."
So, assuming MacQueen killed the wolf when aged 20, died aged 60, and Lauder heard the story on or before 1830 when his book was published, that gives a year for the wolf killing well into the 18th century.
Stuart dates the first of his four stories to the reign of James VI (p240), the second story to the reign of Charles II (p242), and the third story to the end of Charles II's reign (p244). But James VI reign ended in 1625 and Charles II's reign ended in 1685. So none of these stories extend into the 18th century. Stuart's fourth wolf story is the same as Lauder's story and is said by Stuart to have happened in 1743 (for more see below).
Conclusion
Of the stories related by Harting only one is set in the 18th century. By itself this story cannot confirm that wolves survived much if anything beyond the 1680's and Harting provides no other evidence that would seriously suggest wolves survived longer.
The 'Last' Wolf In Britain
Lauder and Stuart write about the same MacQueen story. Lauder says MacQueen killed the last wolf in the district (p44). Stuart claims this was the last wolf killed in Scotland (p244):
"...the last [wolf] of Findhorn - and also, as there seems every reason to believe, the "last" of his species in Scotland."
This story of Stuart is repeated by Harting (1880:177-80) and has become know as the story of the last wolf in Scotland (and therefore in Britain), killed in 1743. Yet Stuart offers no evidence to support his claims nor provides any reference to sources. Where did he get this story?
Lauder pre-dates Stuart and tells the same story as him. Lauder says (p40-2) he heard the anecdotes he relates in his book from the local people in the Highlands: "The people told me that..." and, "The landlord of the inn told me..." and, "I had William Clarke, the Tomatin gamekeeper, with me as a guide. He is a native of this valley... From him I learned that...". Therefore the origin of the story of Lauder and Stuart would appear to be an oral tradition in the Highlands.
A characteristic of all these wolf stories, which distinguishes them from Holinshed, Camden and Sibbald, is that they are written in the style of good yarns. For instance, the wolf is big, ferocious and has just killed children; she returns to her den to save her own cubs but is stabbed to death there herself by the hero, who is modest, nonchalantly brave, and, despite the wolf's dangerous nature, is never even scratched.
The stories that Scrope, Lauder and Stuart recorded are not history as it happened, but the last imaginative oral traditions of wolves in the Highlands of the 18th century.
References
BBC News (1999): Martyn Gorman, by Anon, Call for return of Scottish wolves. Online at Science/Nature: Specials: Sheffield 99. 17 September.
Bowie, William (1855): The black book of Taymouth, with other papers from the Breadalbane charter room. Edited by Cosmo Nelson Innes. Printed by the Marquis of Breadalbane, Edinburgh.
Camden, William (1610): Britain, or a chorographical description of the most flourishing Kingdoms, England, Scotland, and Ireland. Translated by Philemon Holland. Published by George Bishop, London.
Camden, William (1695): Camden's Britannia. Newly translated into English with large additions and improvements. Published by Edmund Gibson, of Queens-College in Oxford.
Harting, James Edmund (1880): British Animals Extinct Within Historic Times, with some account of British wild white cattle. Paul P B Minet, Buckinghamshire, 1972. Originally published by Trubner, London.
Holinshed, Raphael (1577): Chronicles of England, Scotlande and Irelande. The description of Scotland, written at the first by Hector Boethus in Latin, and afterwarde translated into the Scottish speech by John Bellendon Archdeacon of Murrey, and now finally into English, for the benefite of such as are studious in the Histories, by W.H.
Lauder, Thomas Dick (1830): Account of the Moray floods of August 1829, in the province of Moray, and adjoining districts. 2nd edition. Adam Black, Edinburgh; Longman, Rees Orme, Brown & Green, London; and Forsyth & Young, Elgin.
Rogers, Charles (ed) (1880): The rental book of the cistercian abbey of Cupar-Angus with the breviary of the register. Volume 2. Printed for the Grampian Club, London.
New Scientist (2001): Stephen Harris, Animal kingdom, by Gail Vines. 29 September, page 40.
The Scotsman(2002): Paul van Vlissingen, Wildlife scheme to lure tourists, by John Ross. 26 June.
Scrope, William (1838): The art of deer-stalking, illustrated by a narrative of a few days sport in the forest of Atholl, with some account of the nature and habits of red deer, and a short description of the Scotch forests; legends; superstitions; stories of poachers and freebooters, et etc. London: John Murray, Albermarle Street.
Sibbald, Robert (1684): Scotia Illustrata sive Prodromus Historiae Naturalis. Naturalis Historiae Scotiae. Sectio Sequnda: de quadrupedibus. Caput iv. De Quadrupedibus Digitatis Viviparis, & Primo de Digitatis Semiferis.
Sobieski, John & Stuart, Charles Edward (1848): Lays of the deer forest, with sketches of olden and modern deer-hunting; traits of natural history in the forest; traditions of the clans; miscellaneous notes. Vol 2. William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh & London, and Charles Dolman, London.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the Bodleian Library, Oxford University, for the many documents consulted and for the help and forbearance of the Bodleian's courteous staff.
© Wolf Trust 2004. All rights reserved.
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